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In Graeco-Roman times it was customary, at home, to stand the mummy of a deceased relative upright in the coffin for a while before burial. A wooden panel with a depiction of the deceased was placed over the face which, like the rest of the body, was tightly wrapped in linen bands. Hundreds of such portraits of ancient inhabitants of the Nile valley have come down to us in this form. (APM 7118)

Egypt
More than 95 per cent of Egypt consists of desert. Most of the remaining area is habitable only thanks to the Nile. A remarkable feature of the river was that every summer its banks flooded due to the rainy season in central Africa. The water left behind a layer of fertile silt which, in turn, allowed for the development of civilization. However, the Aswan dam put an end to the annual flood which last took place in 1967. A millennium-old rhythm was then interrupted, a continuity that, for a large part, explains ancient Egypt's static and conservative nature. Egypt is divided into two very different regions: Upper Egypt, consisting of the actual Nile valley itself in the centre and south, between the desert mountains, sometimes reduced to no more than a very narrow strip; and Lower Egypt, the broad and flat Nile Delta in the north. For ages, ancient Egypt could develop independently and undisturbed because of its quite isolated geographical position.

History
The written history of Egypt goes back to before 3000 B.C. Based on the writings of the Egyptian priest Manetho, who wrote in Greek during the third century B.C., Egyptian history is today divided into 31 dynasties or royal families. A system of historical periods, as presently maintained, is as follows, with their approximate dates.

Prehistory (to 3000 B.C.)
The prehistoric period saw the emergence of writing and many norms became established in architecture, artistic convention and religion that remained operative during Egypt's entire further history. There were already relations with Mesopotamia.

Early Dynastic period (3000-2650 B.C.)
A time of formation when Egypt became politically organized. It was divided into administrative units and ruled from Memphis. Much attention was paid to water management.

Old Kingdom (2650-2200 B.C.)
In its earliest flourish Egypt was unified under a strong central authority. Its policies were not expansive and the military acted only when its interests had to be defended. The large pyramids of Kheops and Khephren were built.

First Intermediate period (2200-2000 B.C.)
A time of chaos followed the fall of the Old Kingdom. Egypt became divided into competing centres of power, which led to famine.

Middle Kingdom (2000-1800 B.C.)
Thebes reunited Upper and Lower Egypt. As the result of internal strains and attacks from outside this thriving period ended too.

Middle Kingdom (2000-1800 B.C.)
Thebes reunited Upper and Lower Egypt. As the result of internal strains and attacks from outside this thriving period ended too.

Second Intermediate period (1800-1550 B.C.)
Egypt again became divided. Migrating tribes, the Hyksos, established themselves in northern Egypt while the rulers of Thebes continued to govern the south. Ultimately, the latter succeeded in defeating the Hyksos invaders.

New Kingdom (1550-1100 B.C.)
Egypt flourished anew. Expeditions were sent to Somalia, and correspondence, written in cuneiform, was sent to Near Eastern rulers. The New Kingdom was the period of the pharaohs Akhenaten, Tutankhamon and Ramesses the Great who, in 1286 B.C., fought against the Hittites at Qadesh. However, even though Egypt succeeded in repelling an invasion of the so-called Sea Peoples, it lost its former strength.

Third Intermediate period (1100-650 B.C.)
Egypt became disunited and was no longer a power to be reckoned with. Nubian kings gained authority, followed by the Assyrians.

Late period (650-332 B.C.)
For the last time Egypt was able to reassert its independence under Psammetichus, but it was unable to deal with the Babylonians. In 525 B.C. it finally became part of the Persian empire and, in turn, was conquered by Alexander the Great from the Persians in 332 B.C. His general Ptolemy became Egypt's new king.

Greek-Roman period (from 332 B.C.)
Cleopatra was the last scion of this infamous family. After her death in 30 B.C. Egypt became a province and a source of wealth for Rome. When the Roman Empire was divided, Egypt came under Byzantium. In the seventh century A.D. the Arabs placed Egypt under their dominion.

The Museum possesses objects from all periods, many of which are related to funerary rites. A special room is dedicated to mummification. An example of such an object is a model of a ship from the Middle Kingdom. These models were given to the deceased and put in the graves. The purpose of these ships was to transport the soul of the dead person to the Underworld. As the Egyptians used the river for transportation in daily life, they believed that this continued after death. From the New Kingdom dates a relief, showing the scribe Ta kneeling in adoration of the god Anubis, who in Egyptian mythology accompanied the dead to the Underworld. Anubis is usually depicted as a dog. Another divinity who appears in the form of an animal is the cat-goddess Bastet, of which a small bronze statue dating from the Late Period can be seen in the Museum. Among the many other objects on display is a mummy mask from the Hellenistic period. The hair emerging from under the veil indicates the influence of the Greek culture.


The pre-eminent form of transportation in ancient Egypt was the boat, which was also the necessary vehicle for the dead. Some pharaohs were buried with life-sized boats, less exalted people received models outfitted with masts, rowers, pilot and helmsman. (APM 9115)


Anubis, the god of death, had the important role of accompanying the dead to the underworld. On this funerary relief the scribe Ta from the New Kingdom dedicates offers to Anubis and the text, among other things, lists the deceased's offices. (APM 8852)


The practice of mummification emerged when the dead began to be buried in coffins rather than laid in the desert sand where they naturally desiccated. The viscera were first removed, and then the body was swathed in strips of cloth. Over the centuries the process was steadily refined. (APM 10842, 13010, 13011, 8418 b2/A/B1)


In the Late Period, the veneration of animals as the earthly representatives of the gods with whom they were associated increased spectacularly. Herodotus remarks that thousands of people attended the temple festivals of the cat goddess Bastet in the town of Bubastis in the Nile Delta. (APM 8831)


From the Old Kingdom on, it was customary to write the biographies of the dead on the walls of their graves. This part of the grave of a certain Mehi shows several of his titles, written in meticulous hieroglyphs, which introduce his biography. (APM 8752 and 14021)


The Copts abandoned the practice of mummification and buried their dead in the desert. The dry sand has frequently conserved the funerary garments, which give us a good impression of Coptic weaving techniques and clothing. Slanting pieces of fabric were inserted between the front and back panels of this children's dress. Colourful bands accent the neck and cuffs. (APM 6108)